TITLE: North Side Skull & Bones Gang Mardi Gras Mask
TYPE: helmet mask
GENERAL REGION: North America
COUNTRY: United States of America
SUB-REGION: New Orleans, Louisiana
ETHNICITY: African-American
DESCRIPTION: Skull & Bone helmet mask
CATALOG ID: N/A
MAKER: N/A
CEREMONY: Mardi Gras
AGE: N/A
MAIN MATERIAL: paper maché
OTHER MATERIALS: N/A

In Catholic practice, Mardi Gras (“Fat Tuesday”) is the last day of celebration of Carnival before the fasting period of Lent. In the United States, the holiday is nowhere more vigorously celebrated than in New Orleans, Louisiana. There, a two-week Carnival season terminating on Mardi Gras is celebrated with parades composed of elaborate costumes and masks, floats, marching bands, all organize by private “krewes” composed of public-spirited citizens dedicated to preserving the Mardi Gras tradition. Krewes tend to have a fairly constant structure of officers, who frequently ride horseback in handsome costumes and white draped masks, float riders who chuck “throws,” or small gifts such as plastic beaded necklaces, toys, or mementos (usually with the krewe’s name and insignia) into the cheering crowds, and a guest “king” and “queen” of the krewe.

Mardi Gras in New Orleans is also typically celebrated with formal balls held by the krewes in honor of the king and queen, and to celebrate the season.  Mask wearing among street celebrants is common as well. Traditionally, Mardi Gras masks are made of formed and painted leather, and can represent any character from real life or fantasy.  In modern practice, cheap masks mass manufactured of sequined cloth or paper maché covered in dyed feathers have become common.

The North Side Skull & Bone Gang, from the Tremé neighborhood of New Orleans, practices a unique tradition of going door-to-door beginning at sunrise, to spread messages of peace and pro-social behavior. The Museum’s collection does not include a mask from the Skull & Bone Gang, of which only a few exist.



Click above to watch a short documentary about Mardi Gras in New Orleans, Louisiana in 2019 and 2020.

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TITLE: Tambuan Mask
TYPE: helmet mask
GENERAL REGION: Oceania
COUNTRY: Papua New Guinea
SUBREGION: East New Britain Island
ETHNICITY: Melanesian (Tolai)
DESCRIPTION: Tambuan helmet mask
CATALOG ID: N/A
MAKER: N/A
CEREMONY: Kinawai Ceremony; Duk-Duk Dance
FUNCTION: Adult initiation; secret society; spirit invocation; war preparation
AGE: N/A
MAIN MATERIAL: tapa cloth
OTHER MATERIALS: N/A

The tambuan is an important adult initiation and war preparation ceremony among the Tolai people of East New Britain, Papua New Guinea. The tambuan appears as a conical figure with a leaf skirt and bare legs. The tambuan may appear in any village dance, but their most prominent role is in the Kinawai ceremony, organized by the the Duk-Duk Society, a male secret society that is one of the major social organizations of the Tolai ethnic group. During Kinawai, tambuans (female) and duk-duks (male) appears at dawn in groups, usually in a canoe accompanied by drums. The tambuan eventually land on the beach and dance up and down the beach. The figure represents an ancestor spirit and is important for adult initiation of Tolai boys. As part of a secret male society, these rituals may not be attended by women.

The Museum’s collection does not have a representative of the tambuan mask, because such masks are considered sacred objects by the Tolai people.

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TITLE: Bear Mask
TYPE: helmet mask
GENERAL REGION: Europe
COUNTRY: France
SUBREGION: Pyrénées-Orientales
ETHNICITY: French Catalonian
DESCRIPTION: Fur l’ours (bear) mask
CATALOG ID: N/A
MAKER: N/A
CEREMONY: Fête de l’Ours (Bear Festival)
FUNCTION: Adult initiation; entertainment; protection/purification
AGE: N/A
MAIN MATERIAL: goat fur and skin
OTHER MATERIALS: N/A

The Eastern Pyrenees region of France shares with Andorra a cultural tradition known as the Fête de l’Ours (or Festa de l’Ós in Catalonian). The festival is actually a pair of satirical plays regarding a bear. The specific form of this festival is unique to Catalonian France and Andorra, where it varies from town to town. In only a few places is the bear a masked character. On the first day is the children’s version known as the Fête de l’Ós Petit, or Festival of the Little Bear. Both bear festivals have a similar sequence, with minor variations. The Bear Festivals begin with the trapper and his wife, Roseta or Rosette (played by a young man in drag) traveling through the village, clowning as they go, accompanied by the townsfolk. At each stop, the trapper exhorts the local hunters to help him using a prepared speech, either in Catalán or French. “Courageous men,” he shouts, “the cruel bear is in the mountains; we can save ourselves if our hearts are noble!”

Roseta’s role is to attract the bear, named Martín, which according to local myth, periodically tries to abduct girls with concupiscent intent. After each speech, the trapper and Roseta dance in a circle to rally the hunters and townsfolk. In the Fête de l’Ours, this includes a female contingent of Amazons dressed in primitive garb, as well as washwomen in white. The Botes, or barrels, are strong villagers who hide under shells with painted faces to lure the bear forward. On the way through town chasing Roseta, Martín sometimes gets distracted and grabs at any young woman within reach. The trapper’s task is to refocus him on Roseta. In the town squares, the Botes join the Tortugues to help subdue the bear. Tortugues are dressed in white with white makeup, and are hidden in white cloth tubes. From the tubes, they try to distract the bear. Their lures of choice are canes with little stuffed bears or dolls on the ends.

Whenever the bear gets tired, Roseta tempts him and he pursues her anew, with the trapper always there to hinder him. These sequences occur several times in different town squares. After each, the group dances to the music of a live band accompanying them. Eventually, the trapper, Roseta, and the bear Martín find themselves on the balcony of a house known as Maison Bouzage, continuing their comedic antics, while the trapper discharges a rifle at the bear. When the hijinks go haywire, oursgence is there to save the day. Oursgence is an untranslatable pun deftly combining the French word for bear (ours) with the word for emergency medical team (urgence). They clown around and occasionally step in to help the characters when the antics miscarry. Throughout these sequences, a band accompanies the group and helps coordinate the action, using music as a signal.

When the group finally reaches the main square, the entire town surrounds them, and they prepare for the finale. A final round of trapping begins and eventually, the hunters wrestle the bear to the ground, and it is captured. To show his mastery of the bear, the trapper makes it do tricks and the bear, in turn, makes the trapper, or Roseta, or both do the same tricks, for comedic effect. Finally, the bear abducts a young woman he chooses from the crowd and takes her to his cave at the edge of the square. Oursgence carries the exhausted bear to a chair for the climax.

The implements for the shaving ritual are now prepared and “Amazons” and washwomen pass the time making merry. Eventually, Oursgence recovers the young woman and examines her. The bear emerges from the cave, shouting his characteristic “hou!” and is promptly shot by the trapper.

The shaving ritual begins with dances by the trapper and Roseta before the bear. He is dressed in a bib apron and given a shaving basin, with each dancing alternately to keep Martín distracted. Finally, they dance toward the bear with a large axe, to his evident distress. The trapper sharpens the axe on the ground, then symbolically shaves the bear. They celebrate with a carafe of wine, called a porró, which was formerly found in every home in the region. Everyone enjoys some, even Martín. Finally, the trapper pulls off the bear’s head to reveal a young man. The bear has been civilized, winter is vanquished, and they celebrate with wine. To cap the ceremony, everyone dances in a circle again, followed by a communal feast.

Like similar traditions throughout Europe, the Fête de l’Ours probably dates back thousands of years to pre-Christian times, when the end of winter was celebrated with a ritual that cleansed the region of evil spirits, represented by the bear. Historical evidence mentions such festivals explicitly at least as early as the 17th century. At some point, this ritual was combined with the initiation rites of boys into adulthood.

The Museum’s collection does not have a representative of the very few extant masks of the Ours for reasons of cost.

To watch a short documentary about the Bear Festival (Fête de l’Ours) of Catalonian France, click above.

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TITLE: Hopi Katsina Mask
TYPE: helmet mask
GENERAL REGION: North American
COUNTRY: United States of America
SUBREGION: New Mexico
ETHNICITY: Hopi
DESCRIPTION: Helmet mask used for Katsina dances and ceremonies
CATALOG ID: N/A
MAKER: N/A
CEREMONY: Katsina
FUNCTION: adult initiation; agriculture; celebration; social control; spirit invocation
AGE: mid-twentieth century
MAIN MATERIAL: leather
OTHER MATERIALS: N/A

Among the Puebloan nations of the southwest United States, the Hopi people of Arizona and New Mexico are known for their katsina (also spelled kachina) dolls, given to children to help them recognize the spirits that will protect and benefit the Hopi people. These dolls represent masked dancers who have assumed the form of spirits and gods, dancing at ceremonies from the winter solstice (December) to just after the summer solstice (July). The ceremonies especially focus on the planting season and ensuring a fruitful crop.  The katsina dancers perform important religious and social roles in purifying the village, policing Hopi behavior, and in some cases entertaining the audience.  They are also used in adult initiation ceremonies for boys.

Hopi society is infused with religion, in which the katsinam play a major role during half the year.  There are numerous dances and ceremonies involving the katsinam between February and August, including Soyalwimi (winter solstice) and the Powamuya (Bean Ceremony) in February. Some of these ceremonies are complex, involving night visits by the katsinam to regulate village conduct, adult initiation of boys between 10 and 15 years into the Katsina Society, and dances during the daytime to increase the fertility of the crops and wildlife upon which the Hopi depend.

Hopi masks are almost always helmet shaped and are considered sacred objects belonging to the tribe rather than individual dancers.  There are many different animal katsinam, and these typically dance singly or in a group during the summer day dances.

The Museum has chosen not to include any katsina mask in its collection in deference to the wishes of the Hopi Nation, which considers the masks as sacred objects.

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TITLE: Kanaval Devil
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Caribbean
COUNTRY: Haiti
ETHNICITY: Afro-Haitian
DESCRIPTION: Se Wè Ya Wèm Diable (Devil) Mask
CATALOG ID: CAHT003
MAKER: Unknown maker in Jacmel
CEREMONY: Carnival
AGE: 1989
MAIN MATERIAL: paper maché
OTHER MATERIALS: dyed polyester fabric; cow teeth; cow horns; repurposed tire rubber; foam rubber; paint; adhesive; stitching

In Haiti, the French-speaking descendants of African slaves celebrate Carnival (Kanaval) with parades and parties. Due to the extreme poverty of the great majority of Haitian people, masks and costumes are mostly handmade from recycled or easily available materials. There are stock characters that appear at most celebrations, such as Chaloska and the horned Lanse Kòds, but participants are free to invent their own costumes.  A few expert artisans create more professional masks, but even these tend to be made of inexpensive materials, such as paper maché or wire mesh. This specific mask has a menacing slogan painted on its tongue: “Se wè ya wèm,” which has been translated from Haitian Creole as “You’ll be haunted by seeing me everywhere.”

For more on Haitian Carnival, see Leah Gordon et al., Kanaval: Vodou, Politics and Revolution on the Streets of Haiti (London: Soul Jazz Pub., 2010).

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TITLE: Toba Batak Funerary Mask
TYPE: helmet mask
GENERAL REGION: Oceania
COUNTRY: Indonesia
SUBREGION: North Sumatra
ETHNICITY: Toba Batak
DESCRIPTION: Funerary Helmet Mask
CATALOG ID: OCID040
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Hoda Hoda
FUNCTION: Entertainment; Funerary; Protection/Purification
AGE: late 20th century
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: resin

The Toba Batak people make up the largest ethnic group in North Sumatra. Although most Toba people are Christians, their traditional religion is a syncretic mixture of animism, Hinduism, and Islam. Masks are used in several ways among the Toba Batak people. Historically, they were used to tell stories in dance dramas, in which unmasked characters often participated. During funerary ceremonies for rajas, a masked dance called Hoda Hoda was performed, in which a pair wore masks to confuse the spirit of the deceased, so that the spirit would depart to the next world and not linger to harm the living. The dancers carried large wooden hands to exaggerate their dance movements, and masks such as this one would include a large headdress made of cotton and plant fiber inserted into the hole on top.

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TITLE: Shishi Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Japan
SUBREGION: Kantō
ETHNICITY: Japanese
DESCRIPTION: Lion Dance (Shishi Mai) Mask (Gashira)
CATALOG ID: ASJP049
MAKER: Unknown maker in Kyōto
CEREMONY: Shishi Mai; Onidaiko (Katagami style)
AGE: 1920s
MAIN MATERIAL: cedar wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; lacquer; adhesive; cotton rope; dyed cotton cloth; washi; hardware

The shishi mask represents a mythical lion that protects and purifies the region in which it dances, driving away evil spirits, famine, and disease. The shishi mai (lion dance) is performed throughout Japan on festival days, especially during the lunar new year and Buddha’s birthday. Its appearance varies in different villages, with the lion style (like this mask) predominating, but other animals, such as a deer, cow, or mythical kirin, used in certain villages. The lion is accompanied by a retinue of drummers playing the taiko drum, as it walks through the town, dancing and bestowing blessings on locals. To drive away evil spirits, the shishi bites the head of villagers, which brings good luck and health. In some places, such as Sado Island, the shi shi dance in coordination with an oni, or divine messenger, who helps frighten away evil spirits, thereby purifying the village.

The lion dance originated in China and was brought to Japan by Chinese travelers around the early 16th century (Muromachi Period). As in China, the shishi can be danced by a sole performer or a group. In western Japan, the gigaku-kei style of shishi mai is performed by two or more dancers bundled into a long costume. In the Kantō and Tōhoku, the dance style is known as furyu-kei, and is performed by a single dancer, who beats a drum tied around his waist.

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TITLE: Bujang Ganong Reog Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Indonesia
SUBREGION: Java
ETHNICITY: Javanese
DESCRIPTION: Bujang Ganong
CATALOG ID: ASID041
MAKER: Imam Amirul Musthafa (Ponorogo, 1961- )
CEREMONY: Reog Dance-Drama
FUNCTION: entertainment; protection/purification
AGE: 2024
MAIN MATERIAL: Indian coral tree wood
OTHER MATERIALS: resin eyes; synthetic hair; paint; dyed cotton decorations; cotton thread; polyester cloth; hardware

The Reog (also spelled Réyog) dance-drama is a Javanese ritual involving multiple masked and costumed dancers, that serves multiple purposes in Javanese society. It originated in Ponorogo, East Java, and tells the story of the King of Ponorogo, Klono Sewandono, on his journey to Kediri to marry Princess Songgo Langit. During this journey, he is attacked by a vicious beast, the Singo Barong, a lion-like creature with a peacock on its head. The Barong is accompanied by a cavalry composed of girls wearing costumes representing horses made of bamboo, called the jathil. The Reog proceeds in three sets of dances. The first involves the bujang ganong, male dancers in (usually red) masks that represent masculine traits, who perform acrobatic dances. The second is called the Jaran Kepang and is performed by the jathil. The third dance is perfomed by all the dancers together. The warok are the main male dancers and wear the Singo Barong mask (also called a Dedak Merak), sometimes with a jathil riding atop the mask. Each dance is accompanied by an orchestra composed of gamelans, reed flutes, and gongs.

The Reog is also widely interpreted as a satire about Majapahit rule over eastern Java, with the Barong representing the Majapahit king (the lion) and queen (the peacock, which sits atop the lion to control it). The jathil were formerly played by boys in drag (gemblak), but were changed to girls to accommodate Muslim religious opposition to transvestitism and pederasty. The femininity of the jathil is thought to represent the lost strength of the Majapahit army.

Reog is a spiritual dance-drama requiring intense concentration, dexterity, and physical strength. The masks are kept on without straps, but instead are gripped in the teeth of the dancers using a bite bar. This can be especially arduous for the Barong dancers, as the Singo Barong mask may weigh as much as 50 kg. Traditionally, the bujang ganong and reog perform their dances in a trance. Tooth damage from the performance has been medically documented as common. It is usually performed on Muslim holidays, as well as at important community events such as weddings and the anniversary of the Ponorogo Regency.

For more on the Reog Ponorogo, see Margaret J. Kartomi, “Performance, Music and Meaning of Réyog Ponorogo,” 22 Indonesia 84 (1976).

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TITLE: Nōgaku Semimaru Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Japan
ETHNICITY: Japanese
DESCRIPTION: Semimaru (blind prince) mask
MAKER: Sawazou
CATALOG ID: ASJP030
CEREMONY: Noh Drama
AGE: 1950s
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; lacquer; silk cord

The Noh theater evolved from a combination of Chinese Nuo opera, popular village entertainment known as Sarugaku, and courtly Bugaku dance to become a uniquely Japanese form of high culture. Noh, or Nōgaku, probably first emerged as a distinct form of theater in the 14th century.  A wide variety of plays developed over the ensuing three hundred or so years, with masked characters playing an important role in most.  The masks require the actors to communicate through posture, body movement, and vocal control, whose perfection requires years of intense training.  Although the masks prevent the actor from using facial expression, the most expertly carved masks can be made to express different emotions at different angles, so that he actor can change facial expression by the tilting his head.

This mask is used solely in the eponymous play, Semimaru and represents the blind fourth child of Emperor Engi (Emperor Daigo, 885-930). It begins when an imperial officer, Kiyotsura, who has received an order from the emperor to abandon Prince Semimaru on Mount Ōsaka, takes the prince to the mountain. Semimaru calms the lamenting Kiyotsura by approving the emperor’s wise decision as calculated to improve Semimaru’s chance of the happiness in his next life. Kiyotsura shaves the prince’s head to have him renounce the world and gives him a straw raincoat, rain hat, and cane before they part. In tears, Prince Semimaru who is now alone holds his biwa (Japanese lute) to his chest, staggering and tripping over the mountain. A court official, Hakuga no Sanmi, comes to check on Prince Semimaru to find him in the misery. Out of pity, he constructs a straw hut to keep the prince out of the rain and dew and invites the prince in.

Prince Semimaru’s older sister, Princess Sakagami, has hair growing towards the sky by nature. Although she is a princess, the strange phenomenon is considered a curse, and she goes mad and leaves Kyoto, wandering in the wilderness until she reaches Mount Ōsaka. There she stops upon hearing the sound of a lute coming from a straw hut and talks to her brother, Prince Semimaru. The brother and sister embrace and share their sorrowful stories. They then part in tears.

For more on Noh masks, see the excellent book by Michishige Udaka and Shuichi Yamagata, The Secrets of Noh Masks (Tokyo: Kodansha International , 2010).


To watch a short documentary about Japanese Nogaku (Noh drama and Kyogen plays), click above.

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TITLE: Nōgaku Kitsune Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Japan
ETHNICITY: Japanese
DESCRIPTION: Kitsune (Fox) Mask
MAKER: Unknown (unsigned)
CATALOG ID: ASJP029
CEREMONY: Noh Drama; Kyōgen Play
AGE: ca. 1850
MAIN MATERIAL: Japanese cypress wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; animal hair; glue; silk cord

The Noh theater evolved from a combination of Chinese Nuo opera, popular village entertainment known as Sarugaku, and courtly Bugaku dance to become a uniquely Japanese form of high culture. Noh, or Nōgaku, probably first emerged as a distinct form of theater in the 14th century.  A wide variety of plays developed over the ensuing three hundred or so years, with masked characters playing an important role in most.  The masks require the actors to communicate through posture, body movement, and vocal control, whose perfection requires years of intense training.  Although the masks prevent the actor from using facial expression, the most expertly carved masks can be made to express different emotions at different angles, so that he actor can change facial expression by the tilting his head.

This mask is known as kitsune, or fox. The fox represents a shapeshifting spirit animal (kami) that can take the form of any person and has supernatural powers. The kitsune is a character in the Noh drama Sessho-seki (“The Killing Stone”), which is the tale of Tamamo-no-Mae, a kitsune who assumed the form of a beautiful maiden to seduce Emperor Konoe and steal his throne.

The kitsune also appears prominently in Tsurigitsune (“Fox Trapping”), a kyōgen play in which the Buddhist priest Hakuzōsu visits his nephew, a hunter, to lecture him on the evils of killing foxes. After Hakuzōsu leaves the hunter, the kitsune encounters a trap and cannot resist the bait. He changes back to the form of a fox, and the suspicious hunter, watching from the bushes, traps him in the snare. Though he tries to bludgeon the fox, it ultimately escapes and cries out with relief.

Kitsune are often seen guarding Shinto shrines and are considered harbingers and wealth and worldly success. In Japanese mythology, there are thought to be thirteen different kinds of kitsune: celestial, wind, spirit, darkness, fire, earth, river, ocean, forest, mountain, thunder, sound, and time. Some kinds of zenko, or helpful, and others are nogitsune, or malevolent.

For more on Noh masks, see the excellent book by Michishige Udaka and Shuichi Yamagata, The Secrets of Noh Masks (Tokyo: Kodansha International , 2010).


To watch a short documentary about Japanese Nogaku (Noh drama and Kyogen plays), click above.

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