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General Zhangfei Nuo Mask

TITLE: General Zhangfei Nuo Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: China
SUBREGION: Guizhou
ETHNICITY: Hmong (Miao)
DESCRIPTION: Nuo mask of General Zhangfei for the Three Heroes Fight
CATALOG ID: ASCN018
MAKER: Zhou [first name unknown] (Cha Tou Pu Village, Pingba City, Anshun, 1934-2012)
CEREMONY: Nuoxi
FUNCTION: Celebration; Entertainment; Protection/Purification
AGE: 1980
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; string; human hair; adhesive; mirror; rubber bands; decorations of dyed cotton; bamboo; artificial pheasant feathers

The Nuoxi of China may be traced back to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), possibly much earlier (some believe the Shang and Zhou Dynasties) and was popular in large parts of the empire, but especially along the southern borders, where it was a form of entertainment for the imperial troops. It evolved from a sacrificial rite performed by shamans into a more dramatic form, with both Buddhist and Taoist overtones. Nuo opera is based on historical stories and stories based on the Taoist religion and all roles (including female roles) are performed by men. It evolved into a popular form of entertainment and was eventually accompanied by an orchestra of Chinese instruments.  The Nuo opera never quite lost its shamanic connection, however, and also was used to exorcise evil spirits at the home of sick persons. The sacred connection is evident from a religious ceremony that always precedes the opening of a Nuo opera.  In addition, a wooden statue representing the originator of the opera is present at every performance, and nobody except the opera troupe may touch props used in the performance. Although the Chinese Communist Party attempted to suppress Nuo performances and eliminated it from most of the country, the opera continues to be performed in three southern provinces of China today (Guangxi, Guizhou, and Jiangxi).

The Miao people are part of the Hmong ethnic group living in southern China. The hair on Miao nuo masks must be cut from the corpse of a man who had several children and who lived an exemplary life, neither feuding with neighbors nor hoarding wealth. This character, General Zhangfei, is used in a dance-drama from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms called the Three Heroes Fighting Lu Bu. It is supposed to recount the story of three brothers who fought General Lu Bu at the Hu Lao Pass, Henan, around 190 CE. According to different versions of the story, the brothers attacked Lu Bu because of his reputation as the greatest fighter in China. After a long battle, they overcame Lu Bu and forced him to retreat to the pass gate. In another version of the story, the brothers overwhelm Lu Bu, with Zhangfei delivering a wounding blow, and they befriend the surrendering Lu Bu.

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Jankanu Mask

TITLE: Jankanu Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Belize
SUBREGION: Stann Creek Distrit
ETHNICITY: Afro-Latino (Garifuna)
DESCRIPTION: Clean-shaven Jankanu mask
CATALOG ID: LABZ002
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Habinahan Wanaragua Jankanu
AGE: 1990s
MAIN MATERIAL: wire mesh
OTHER MATERIALS: metal strips; paint

The Garifuna people are the descendants of Africans of the Poro and Egungan ethnicities forcibly brought to British Honduras during the colonial period, some of whom mixed with indigenous peoples to form a mixed Afro-Latino identity. On the Sunday following Christmas Day, the Garifuna of the Stann Creek District of Honduras celebrate Habinahan Wanaragua Jankanu, a festival named after John Canoe, also known as January Cony, the British name for the chief of the Ahanta people of Ghana in the 18th century. John Canoe seized the abandoned Fort Fredericksburg in western Ahanta around 1705 and fought off European traders before his eventual defeat in 1725. During the festival celebrants dress in colorful costumes with mirrors and seashells, wear wire mesh masks imitating colonial (British) people topped by colorful headdresses, and dance to the music of drums. The dance is extremely acrobatic, but off-beat, and is intended to satirize the British slave masters.

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Jankanu Mask

TITLE: Jankanu Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Belize
SUBREGION: Stann Creek Distrit
ETHNICITY: Afro-Latino (Garifuna)
DESCRIPTION: Jankanu mask with mustache
CATALOG ID: LABZ001
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Habinahan Wanaragua Jankanu
AGE: 1990s
MAIN MATERIAL: wire mesh
OTHER MATERIALS: metal strips; paint

The Garifuna people are the descendants of Africans of the Poro and Egungan ethnicities forcibly brought to British Honduras during the colonial period, some of whom mixed with indigenous peoples to form a mixed Afro-Latino identity. On the Sunday following Christmas Day, the Garifuna of the Stann Creek District of Honduras celebrate Habinahan Wanaragua Jankanu, a festival named after John Canoe, also known as January Cony, the British name for the chief of the Ahanta people of Ghana in the 18th century. John Canoe seized the abandoned Fort Fredericksburg in western Ahanta around 1705 and fought off European traders before his eventual defeat in 1725. During the festival celebrants dress in colorful costumes with mirrors and seashells, wear wire mesh masks imitating colonial (British) people topped by colorful headdresses, and dance to the music of drums. The dance is extremely acrobatic, but off-beat, and is intended to satirize the British slave masters.

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Chung Mask

TITLE: Chung Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Bhutan
SUBREGION: N/A
ETHNICITY: Ngalop
DESCRIPTION: Chung (Garuda) Mask
CATALOG ID: ASBT005
MAKER: Carver: Bumpa Dorji (Tashiyang, 1991- ); Painter: Tashi Phuntsho (Lhuentse, 1990- )
CEREMONY: Cham Dance
FUNCTION: Celebration; Entertainment; Protection/Purification
AGE: 2025
MAIN MATERIAL: blue pine wood
OTHER MATERIALS: mineral paint; lacquer; cotton cloth; wool cloth; wool batting; thread

The Ngalop people inhabit western and central Bhutan and are originally of Tibetan origin. The ethnic group includes an estimated 710,000 persons.  The Ngalop are primarily Tibetan Buddhist, and their masks are typically worn at monastery celebrations known as Cham Dances to bless the sowing of the grain, pray for a bountiful harvest, and entertain the public.

The chung, or Garuda, is not an original Buddhist character, but is instead a Hindu deity that takes the form of an eagle-like creature, often with a human torso, the wings, beak, and talons of a raptor, and serrated teeth. In Hindu mythology, Garuda is the mount (vahana) of Lord Vishnu and king of the birds. In Bhutanese tschechus, the chung is used is several dances, such as the Bardo Cham, but most prominently the Chung Zam Cham, or Dance of the Four Garudas.

For more on the masked festivals of Bhutan, see Kezang Namgay, Sacred Dances of Bhutan (self-pub., 2d ed., 2017), and, with regard specifically to the traditions of Bumthang, Yonten Dargye, Festivals of Bumthang Dzongkhag (Thimpu: Research & Media Division, National Library & Archives of Bhutan/Tshangpa Press, 2018).

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Atsara Mask and Phallus

TITLE: Atsara Mask and Phallus
TYPE: face mask; accessory
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Bhutan
SUBREGION: N/A
ETHNICITY: Ngalop
DESCRIPTION: Atsara (Teacher) Mask
CATALOG ID: ASBT006
MAKER: Carver: Passang Dorji (Paro, 1981- ); Painter: Tashi Phuntsho (Lhuentse, 1990- )
CEREMONY: Cham Dance
FUNCTION: Celebration; Entertainment; Social Control
AGE: 2025
MAIN MATERIAL: blue pine wood
OTHER MATERIALS: mineral paint; lacquer; cotton cloth; wool cloth; wool batting; thread

The Ngalop people inhabit western and central Bhutan and are originally of Tibetan origin. The ethnic group includes an estimated 710,000 persons.  The Ngalop are primarily Tibetan Buddhist, and their masks are typically worn at monastery celebrations known as Cham Dances to bless the sowing of the grain, pray for a bountiful harvest, and entertain the public.

The atsara, also transliterated acharya, mask is present at nearly all all festivals and throughout the festival. The character plays multiple roles. Most of the time, the atsara is a jester, making jokes and playing tricks, often in small groups, entertaining the audience with bawdy humor. For this purpose, the atsara usually carries an oversized wooden phallus, which he especially uses to tease women young and old. In addition, in some plays, such as the Pholey Moley, the atsara is a dramatic character. Even here, the atsara usually plays a comedic role, relentlessly making sexual innuendos to the audience, other masked characters, and even each other. There are several kinds of atsara, each of which wears a different type of mask, some white, others black, but most commonly red. What all atsara have in common is their status as “teachers,” meaning masters of Vajrayana Buddhist practice. While religious enlightenment may seem inconsistent with bawdy humor, the atsara is also a kind of master of ceremonies, assisting other characters and passing on wisdom in the guise of ribaldry.

For more on the masked festivals of Bhutan, see Kezang Namgay, Sacred Dances of Bhutan (self-pub., 2d ed., 2017), and, with regard specifically to the traditions of Bumthang, Yonten Dargye, Festivals of Bumthang Dzongkhag (Thimpu: Research & Media Division, National Library & Archives of Bhutan/Tshangpa Press, 2018).

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Lenca Guancasco Mask

TITLE: Lenca Guancasco Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Honduras
SUBREGION: Southwest
ETHNICITY: Lenca
DESCRIPTION: Guancasco Mask
CATALOG ID: N/A
MAKER: N/A
CEREMONY: Guancasco
FUNCTION: Agriculture; Celebration
AGE: N/A
MAIN MATERIAL: N/A
OTHER MATERIALS: N/A

The Lenca people are an indigenous group inhabiting southwestern Honduras and eastern El Salvador. Each year, they celebrate the Guancasco ceremony in which neighboring communities congregate to establish or cement friendly relations. The celebration tpically includes traditional dances, including masked dances. At least twenty-nine different dances have been observed by anthropologists. Lenca masks may be made of wood; leather; gourds; or other materials, such as armadillo hide, and represent various characters, such as the gracejo, or clown.

Lenca women often sell “clay root” masks with nontraditional designs to tourists. Genuine Lenca Guancasco masks are very rare. The Museum’s collection currently includes no representative example of a Lenca mask.

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Mapuche Mask

TITLE: Mapuche Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Argentina or Chile
SUBREGION: Araucanía
ETHNICITY: Mapuche (Araucanian)
DESCRIPTION: Unknown Mask
CATALOG ID: N/A
MAKER: N/A
CEREMONY: Unknown
FUNCTION: Funerary; Healing
AGE: N/A
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: N/A

The Mapuche people make up the majority of indigenous peoples in Chile, and many have migrated to southwestern Argentina, including Patagonia. Mapuche society is primarily agrarian and organized into tribal groups under the leadership of a lonko (chief). The Mapuche people traditionally made burial masks of stone, as well as masks of wood, leather, copper, and possibly silver, in funerary and healing rituals.

The Museum’s collection currently includes no representative example of a Mapuche mask.

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Tschäggättä Mask

TITLE: Tschäggättä Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Europe
COUNTRY: Switzerland
SUBREGION: Valais
ETHNICITY: Swiss
DESCRIPTION: Tschäggättä Mask
CATALOG ID: N/A
MAKER: N/A (Lötschental Valley)
CEREMONY: Tschäggättä (Carnival)
AGE: N/A
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: N/A

Fasnacht is what the Swiss call Carnival, but in the Lötschental Valley, the related celebration is referred to as Tschäggättä. The masqueraders wear frightening wood masks, often with large teeth and horns, and suits of animal skins, with cowbells arond their waists. The Tschäggättä come down from the mountains and parade through the local villages, frightening and playing pranks on anyone they meet.

An apocryphal story tried to explain the practice as arising from poor villagers on the shady side of the valley, who would allegedly put on masks to steal food from their more prosperous neighbors on the sunny side. In reality, the original ceremony was a pre-Christian ritual to scare away the winter, similar to those practiced throughout central Europe. With the proselytization of Switzerland, the tradition was merged with the Carnival tradition, and the anonymity of masquerade gave young men the chance to break social conventions and flirt with girls. In modern practice, women as well as men participate in the ritual.

Unfortunately, the best book on Swiss masking traditions is available in German only: Albert Bärtsch, Holzmasken: Fasnachts- und Maskenbrauchtum in der Schweiz, in Süddeutschland und Österreich (AT Verlag 1993).

Tourist masks from Lötschental are fairly common, but genuine cultural masks are very rare. The Museum’s collection currently includes no representative example of a Tschäggättä mask.

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Hahoe Dance-Drama Mask

TITLE: Hahoe Nobleman Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Korea
SUBREGION: Geongsangbuk-do
ETHNICITY: Korean
DESCRIPTION: Hahoe Nobleman Mask
CATALOG ID: N/A
MAKER: N/A
CEREMONY: Hahoe Byeolsingut Talnori
FUNCTION: celebration; entertainment; protection/purification
AGE: N/A
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; lacquer; silk cords

The Hahoe Byeolsingut dance-drama is a ceremony dating back to at least the 12th century. In it, stock characters act out plays to amuse the observers and teach social lessons. There are ten traditional episodes in a play squence, beginning with religious rituals of prayer. The dramas are highly stylized and often accompanied by music. The Hahoe masks, unlike most talnori masks, are made of wood and not ritually burned after the performance to exorcise any demons inhabiting the mask.

Although tourist masks representing Hahoe dance-drama characters are common, genuine masks made for use are rare and considered sacred objects. The Museum’s collection does not currently include a representative example of a genuine Byeolsingut Talnori mask.

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Hill Jatra Mask

TITLE: Hill Jatra Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: India
SUBREGION: Uttarakhand
ETHNICITY: Kumaoni
DESCRIPTION: Hill Jatra Mask
CATALOG ID: N/A
MAKER: N/A
CEREMONY: Hill Jatra
FUNCTION: Agriculture; Celebration; Entertainment
AGE: N/A
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: N/A

In the district of Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand, the Hill Jatra festival is celebrated around purnima, in August or September after the crops are harvested. Hill Jatra is believed to have been introduced by the Nepalese Gurkhas during their occupation of Uttarakhand in the 18th century. The festival involves masked performances of stories from the Ramayana and other Hindu legends. During the festival, a white-clothed deer is worshipped as a local god. The festivity takes place in three phases. In the first, a goat is ritually sacrificed. In the second, dance-dramas are performed for public. In the third, songs and dances are performed.

The Museum’s collection does not currently include a representative example of a Hill Jatra mask.

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