masks

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Iñupiat Aiviq Mask

TITLE: Iñupiat Aiviq Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: North America
COUNTRY: United States of America
SUBREGION: Alaska
ETHNICITY: Iñupiat
DESCRIPTION: Aiviq (Walrus) Mask
CATALOG ID: NAUS163
MAKER: Leon Misak Kinneeveauk (Point Hope, Alaska, 1972- )
CEREMONY: Agriculture/Hunting; Entertainment; Spirit Invocation
AGE: 2026
MAIN MATERIAL: spruce wood
OTHER MATERIALS: red clay pigment; walrus tusks; adhesive; waxed string

The Iñupiat people inhabit the Arctic Slope, Northwest Alaska, and the Bering Strait region up to the Canadian border. They comprise some 13,500 persons, about 3000 of whom speak the Iñupiaq language. They traditionally hunt bowhead whales, seals, walrus, and caribou for subsistence, clothing, and tools. The Iñupiat nation is organized into five ethnic communities, ranging from the Bering Strait (Sivunmiut) to the South Seward Peninsula (Qawiaraq Iñupiat).

The aiviq or walrus dance of the Iñupiat people is a dance expressing the community’s spiritual relationship with nature and honoring the animal spirit of the walrus, a traditionally vital source of food, ivory, and hides. Mimetic animal dances are performed to show respect to the spirits of the walruses that give themselves to the hunters. Honoring the walrus spirit through dance ensures that the animals will continue to return willingly to the communities next season and sustain the people. The dance also pantomimes the subsistence hunt of the walrus in the open, skin-covered boat (umiaq), so it serves the purpose of narrating the hunt as well. Finally, the walrus dance may also serve as a trade song, welcoming an outside delegation and establishing a relationship with its people through sharing a valued cultural practice.

The dance is accompanied by the music of handheld frame drums known as qilaun, often made from the stomach of the walrus itself.

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Tiger Mask

TITLE: Tiger Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Ecuador
SUBREGION: Cotopaxi
ETHNICITY: Mestizo
DESCRIPTION: Tigre (Tiger) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAEC003
CARVER: Luís Mauricio Cuyo (Tigua, 1998- )
PAINTER:  Alfredo Toaquiza (Tigua, 1966- )
CEREMONY: Nochebuena (Christmas Eve)
AGE: 2023
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: oil-based paint; adhesive; string

On Christmas Eve (Nochebuena) in Riobamba and Cuenca, Ecuador, the citizens parade in animal masks around the city. The animals include a dog (guardian of baby Jesus), monkey (acting as clowns), tigers, and others, including El Curiquingue, a sacred Andean character in white and gold feathered costumes and a pointed, bird-like mask to represent the Caracara. This mask represents a tiger, which is not native to Ecuador, and probably is meant to reference the jaguar, which is. It was carved by one artisan and painted by another.

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Guaricha Mask

TITLE: Guaricha Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Ecuador
SUBREGION: Cotopaxi
ETHNICITY: Quechua; Aymara
DESCRIPTION: Español (Spaniard) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAEC004
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Fiesta de la Mama Negra
AGE: 2025
MAIN MATERIAL: wire mesh
OTHER MATERIALS: metal strips; human hair; paint

The Fiesta de la Mama Negra (Festival of the Black Mama) is a celebration held in September and again in early November in Latacunga, Ecuador. The event originates in pre-colonial indigenous practices and was adapted to honor the Virgin of Mercy (Virgen de la Merced) after Catholic conversion, in thanks for her supposed  intervention to protect the population from eruptions from the nearby Cotopaxi volcano.  The festival has become one of the most important in Latacunga, and includes a parade (comparsa) featuring the Mama Negra prominently as an African version of Mary, mother of Jesus, combined with the Incan creator god Pachamama.

Other important masks include the Rey Moro (King Moor, showing the influence of the Conquistadors); angels; clowns (payasos abanderados and huacos); and guarichas (men in drag, who lead a group of dancers and carry a whip to keep the crowd out of the street). This festival opens with the huacos, representing precolonial Aymara shamans who parade to cure the diseases of the crowd. This mask is what the guarichas wear.

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Tsimshian Asdi-wâl Mask

TITLE: Tsimshian Asdi-wâl Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: North America
COUNTRY: Canada
SUBREGION: British Columbia
ETHNICITY: Tsimshian
DESCRIPTION: Asdi-wâl (Ice), Son of the North Wind Mask
CATALOG ID: NACA010
MAKER: Gerry Dudoward (Lax Kwa- alaams/Port Simpson, British Columbia, 1950-98)
CEREMONY: Potlatch
FUNCTION: celebration; entertainment; protection/purification; spirit invocation; status
AGE: 1996
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: mineral-based paints; leather; cowrie shells; mother of pearl; adhesive; leather strap

The Tsimshian people inhabit northwest British Columbia and southeast Alaska, along the Skeena and Nass rivers. They are traditionally a seafaring and fishing people who are divided into four matrilineal groups: Eagle (Laxgiik), Wolf (Laxgibuu), Raven (Ganhada) and Killer Whale (Gispwudwada). Among their traditions are the potlatch (yaawk), a community feast to mark important events, name-givings, and funerary memorials. At potlatches, both masked and unmasked dances may be performed. The masked dances perform a sacred protective function by invoking divine spirits, recount stories or histories for the instruction and entertainment of the group, and reinforce the clan’s identity.

This mask represents the central figure of a culturally significant Tsimshian hero legend, the Epic of Asdi-wâl. In the story, Asdi-wâl is the son of a Tsimshian woman who met a spirit being (neknok) embodying the North Wind. Due to his supernatural father, Asdi-wâl grows to be a master hunter with magic snowshoes and protective gems of eternal ice. He uses the snowshoes to hunt a supernatural white bear, chasing it straight up a cliff. When Asdi-wâl wishes to marry the daughter of a powerful celestial chief, the chief tests Asdi-wâl’s mortality by trying to burn him alive in a massive oven. Asdi-wâl survives by using his father’s protective ice. For the Tsimshian, this is not merely a story for entertainment; it is an adaox, or sacred clan history, that helps define control over hunting territories and seasonal migration routes.

For more on masks of the coastal peoples of western Canada, see Peter MacNair, Robert Joseph & Bruce Grenville, Down from the Shimmering Sky: Masks of the Northwest Coast (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre Ltd., 1998) and Edward Malin, A World of Faces: Masks of the Northwest Coast Indians (Portland: Timber Press, 1978).

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Heiltsuk (?) Spirit Mask

TITLE: Heiltsuk (?) Spirit Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: North America
COUNTRY: Canada
SUBREGION: British Columbia
ETHNICITY: Heiltsuk (Bella Bella) (?)
DESCRIPTION: Spirit Mask (?)
CATALOG ID: NACA011
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Shamanic
FUNCTION: healing; protection/purification; spirit invocation
AGE: ca. 1870-1900
MAIN MATERIAL: cedar wood
OTHER MATERIALS: mineral-based paints

The precise origin and identity of this mask are unknown. It is believed to be from the Heiltsuk people (sometimes called Bella Bella), who live in the central coast of Canada’s British Columbia province (albeit they inhabited that region thousands of years before British colonization). Their religious beliefs rely upon shamans to cure diseases, influence the weather, assist in hunting, protect the people against witchcraft, and commune with spirits to foresee the future. This mask would probably have been worn by a shaman and may represent a spirit. It would most probably have been worn in a healing ceremony or for the purpose of embodying the spirit to fight malevolent magic or otherwise invoke spiritual power.

For more on masks of the coastal peoples of western Canada, see Peter MacNair, Robert Joseph & Bruce Grenville, Down from the Shimmering Sky: Masks of the Northwest Coast (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre Ltd., 1998) and Edward Malin, A World of Faces: Masks of the Northwest Coast Indians (Portland: Timber Press, 1978).

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Lucha Libre Mask

TITLE: Lucha Libre Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Mexico State
ETHNICITY: Mixed
DESCRIPTION: Wrestling Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX186
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Professional wrestling
FUNCTION: Entertainment
AGE: 2025
MAIN MATERIAL: synthetic cloth
OTHER MATERIALS: thread; cotton lacing

Lucha Libre is a form of professional wrestling that originated in Mexico and is characterized by its distinctive style, cultural symbolism, and emphasis on masked performers. Although lucha libre literally means “free wrestling,” matches are typically choreographed and follow established rules and storytelling conventions similar to other forms of professional wrestling. A defining feature of Lucha Libre is the use of colorful masks, which carry significant cultural and personal meaning. Wrestlers, known as luchadores, often adopt ring personas tied to their masks, and maintaining anonymity can be an important aspect of their professional identity. In some cases, losing a match that requires a wrestler to remove their mask, known as a “lucha de apuestas” (bet match), is considered a major career event.

The in-ring style of Lucha Libre emphasizes speed, agility, and aerial maneuvers. Wrestlers frequently perform high-flying techniques such as dives, flips, and intricate submission holds. Matches often involve a faster pace and more continuous action compared to other wrestling traditions. Tag team matches are also common, typically featuring teams of three wrestlers, known as trios. Lucha Libre also incorporates a moral structure, with wrestlers divided into técnicos (faces), who follow the rules and represent positive values, and rudos (heels), who use underhanded tactics and portray antagonistic roles. This dynamic helps structure match narratives and audience engagement. Beyond the ring, Lucha Libre has had a significant influence on Mexican popular culture, including film, television, and comics.

For more on this form of wrestling, see Heather Levi, The World of Lucha Libre: Secrets, Revelations, and Mexican National Identity (Duke University Press, 2008).

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Lucha Libre “El Demonio Azul” Mask

TITLE: Lucha Libre “El Demonio Azul” Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Mexico State
ETHNICITY: Mixed
DESCRIPTION: “The Blue Demon” Mexican Wrestling Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX185
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Professional wrestling
FUNCTION: Entertainment
AGE: 2025
MAIN MATERIAL: synthetic cloth
OTHER MATERIALS: thread; cotton lacing

Lucha Libre is a form of professional wrestling that originated in Mexico and is characterized by its distinctive style, cultural symbolism, and emphasis on masked performers. Although lucha libre literally means “free wrestling,” matches are typically choreographed and follow established rules and storytelling conventions similar to other forms of professional wrestling. A defining feature of Lucha Libre is the use of colorful masks, which carry significant cultural and personal meaning. Wrestlers, known as luchadores, often adopt ring personas tied to their masks, and maintaining anonymity can be an important aspect of their professional identity. In some cases, losing a match that requires a wrestler to remove their mask, known as a “lucha de apuestas” (bet match), is considered a major career event.

The in-ring style of Lucha Libre emphasizes speed, agility, and aerial maneuvers. Wrestlers frequently perform high-flying techniques such as dives, flips, and intricate submission holds. Matches often involve a faster pace and more continuous action compared to other wrestling traditions. Tag team matches are also common, typically featuring teams of three wrestlers, known as trios. Lucha Libre also incorporates a moral structure, with wrestlers divided into técnicos (faces), who follow the rules and represent positive values, and rudos (heels), who use underhanded tactics and portray antagonistic roles. This dynamic helps structure match narratives and audience engagement. Beyond the ring, Lucha Libre has had a significant influence on Mexican popular culture, including film, television, and comics.

For more on this form of wrestling, see Heather Levi, The World of Lucha Libre: Secrets, Revelations, and Mexican National Identity (Duke University Press, 2008).

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Calavera Mask

TITLE: Calavera Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Guerrero
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Calavera (Skull), Muerte (Death), Mikistli (Death) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX183
MAKER: Unknown maker in Zitlala
CEREMONY: Danza de los Mecos (Danza de los Apaches); Xantolo (Day of the Dead)
AGE: 2009
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; gourd; hardware

The Danza de los Mecos, also known as the Danza de los Apaches, is an important dance in Guerrero, San Luís Potosí, and Morelos. The name Mecos refers to the historical indigenous peoples of northern Mexico (Chichimecas). The dance symbolizes the resistance of indigenous peoples to the Spanish conquest and indoctrination into Catholicism. Dancers typically wear body paint using black mud or natural dyes to symbolize the connection of the warriors to the earth. The masks include devils, representing the historical Chichimeca god Tlacatecolotl, as well as viejos (old men), and human-animal blends. They often carry a bow and arrow or spear, and in Guerrero, especially Mochitlán and Chilpancingo, often have feathered headdresses (penachos). Some carry a whip, which they crack to clear the spiritual path to victory. The dance is executed in pairs or groups (cuadrillas) ranging from 10 to 30 couples. Performances are accompanied by traditional brass bands or the string-heavy sones of Huastecan trios. The dance is usually performed during Carnival, on the town’s patron saint festival, or during Xantolo (Day of the Dead).

In some cases, the dancers include a skull (calavera) like this one, representing Death (La Muerte in Spanish, or Mikistli in Nahua). This mask would likely also have been used on the Day of the Dead celebration.

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Charro Carnival Mask

TITLE: Charro Carnival Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Mexico State
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Charro (Cowboy) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX184
MAKER: Unknown maker in Santa María Astahuacán
CEREMONY: Carnival
AGE: ca. 2016
MAIN MATERIAL: wax
OTHER MATERIALS: dyed cloth; synthetic hair; yarn; thread; paint

In a few villages in Estado de México (Mexico State), Carnival masqueraders wear masks representing viejos (distinguished old men) or charros (country gentlemen) made of wax formed over a solid mold, meticulously painted, and threaded with decorated facial hair. They typically wear elaborately decorated suits and sombreros resembling the mariachi outfit, and dance with (unmasked) ladies wearing their finest dresses and hats to traditional music of guitars, trumpets, and drums.

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Barrabás Mask

TITLE: Barrabás Mask
TYPE: face mask; accessories
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Queretaro
ETHNICITY: Otomí
DESCRIPTION: Barrabás Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX108
MAKER: Jorge Luís Velásquez (El Doctor, 1984- )
CEREMONY: Semana Santa (Holy Week)
AGE: 2015
MAIN MATERIAL: denim
OTHER MATERIALS: glue; resin; cardboard; paper flowers; paint; vegetable fiber
STICK: wood; paint; vegetable fiber
NOISEMAKER: wood; hardware

During Semana Santa (Holy Week) in the small mountain town of El Doctor, Queretaro, townspeople celebrate the Passion of Jesus Christ in a unique manner. Participants wear stiff cloth animal masks, known as fariseos (Pharisees) in the form of animals (implying that the Pharisees are bestial) or popular characters. They wear a long wig made of ixtle (agave fiber) and dance in the town square holding a noisemaker (matraca). While dancing, townsfolk often try to set their ixtle wigs on fire, which they have to extinguish, sometimes with the help of others. During the dance, characters known as Judas, who can wear any kind of mask (including a lucha libre wrestling mask), appear in the square and dance through the fariseos, striking their cheeks with small bags of coins. The Judas character now wears paper flowers and balloons on his hat, which townsfolk (and sometimes fariseos) try to pop. Other characters include:

  • Devils, who carry a noisemaker and chain, to represent the sins they drag around with them, and who dance much like the Pharisees.
  • Barrabás, representing the thief who was pardoned by Jesus and who appears in a black, white and red mask with a pointy cap. Barrabás carries a noisemaker, a stick to defend himself, and a cloth bag (morál) with a bottle of tequila in it. He adopts the mannerisms of a drunkard (borracho).
  • Elders, witches, or young women, who may also participate in the same manner as fariseos.

At the end of the festival, the devils and sometimes fariseos light on fire one or more paper maché bulls on a bamboo or stick framework covered in fireworks (the toro de fuego) and carry it through the crowd, showering everyone with sparks. This is the symbolic burning of the Devil. Afterward, devils appear with torches and set alight an effigy of Judas hung in the town square. The effigy is made of straw and fireworks stuffed into clothes, and sets off explosions throughout the plaza.

The masks are made of layered strips of cotton cloth, glued together like paper maché and formed over a unique clay mold (which is broken in the course of removing the mask). The mask is then covered in resin to make it hard and water resistant, then painted. This specific mask represents Barrabás.

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