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Grandma Qintong Nuo Mask

TITLE: Grandma Qintong Nuo Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: China
SUBREGION: Guizhou
ETHNICITY: Han
DESCRIPTION: Nuo mask of a Grandma Qintong character
CATALOG ID: ASCN013
MAKER: Unknown maker in Cengong County, Guizhou
CEREMONY: Nuoxi
FUNCTION: Celebration; Entertainment; Protection/Purification
AGE: 1820-1850
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint

The Nuoxi of China may be traced back to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), possibly much earlier (some believe the Shang and Zhou Dynasties) and was popular in large parts of the empire, but especially along the southern borders, where it was a form of entertainment for the imperial troops. It evolved from a sacrificial rite performed by shamans into a more dramatic form, with both Buddhist and Taoist overtones. Nuo opera is based on historical stories and stories based on the Taoist religion and all roles (including female roles) are performed by men. It evolved into a popular form of entertainment and was eventually accompanied by an orchestra of Chinese instruments.  The Nuo opera never quite lost its shamanic connection, however, and also was used to exorcise evil spirits at the home of sick persons. The sacred connection is evident from a religious ceremony that always precedes the opening of a Nuo opera.  In addition, a wooden statue representing the originator of the opera is present at every performance, and nobody except the opera troupe may touch props used in the performance. Although the Chinese Communist Party attempted to suppress Nuo performances and eliminated it from most of the country, the opera continues to be performed in three southern provinces of China today (Guangxi, Guizhou, and Jiangxi).

The Han people make up the largest ethnic group in China.

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Ishi Gempo Mask

TITLE: Chung Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Bhutan
SUBREGION: N/A
ETHNICITY: Ngalop
DESCRIPTION: Chung (Garuda) Mask
CATALOG ID: ASBT005
MAKER: Carver: Bumpa Dorji (Tashiyang, 1991- ); Painter: Tashi Phuntsho (Lhuentse, 1990- )
CEREMONY: Cham Dance
FUNCTION: Celebration; Entertainment; Protection/Purification
AGE: 2025
MAIN MATERIAL: blue pine wood
OTHER MATERIALS: mineral paint; lacquer; cotton cloth; wool cloth; wool batting; thread

The Ngalop people inhabit western and central Bhutan and are originally of Tibetan origin. The ethnic group includes an estimated 710,000 persons.  The Ngalop are primarily Tibetan Buddhist, and their masks are typically worn at monastery celebrations known as Cham Dances to bless the sowing of the grain, pray for a bountiful harvest, and entertain the public.

The chung, or Garuda, is not an original Buddhist character, but is instead a Hindu deity that takes the form of an eagle-like creature, often with a human torso, the wings, beak, and talons of a raptor, and serrated teeth. In Hindu mythology, Garuda is the mount (vahana) of Lord Vishnu and king of the birds. In Bhutanese tschechus, the chung is used is several dances, such as the Bardo Cham, but most prominently the Chung Zam Cham, or Dance of the Four Garudas.

For more on the masked festivals of Bhutan, see Kezang Namgay, Sacred Dances of Bhutan (self-pub., 2d ed., 2017), and, with regard specifically to the traditions of Bumthang, Yonten Dargye, Festivals of Bumthang Dzongkhag (Thimpu: Research & Media Division, Naitonal Library & Archives of Bhutan/Tshangpa Press, 2018).

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Baining Ragelaque Mask

TITLE: Baining Ragelaque Mask
TYPE: helmet mask
GENERAL REGION: Oceania
COUNTRY: Papua New Guinea
SUBREGION: East New Britain Island
ETHNICITY: Melanesian (Baining)
DESCRIPTION: Ragelaque tapa cloth mask
CATALOG ID: OCPG011
MAKER: Isaac Dulai Sr. (Kainagunan, 2002- )
CEREMONY: Ragelaque Dance
FUNCTION: Adult Initiation; Agriculture; Celebration; Funeral; Spirit Invocation
AGE: 2025
MAIN MATERIAL: tapa cloth
OTHER MATERIALS: cane; paper; natural pigments; string

The Baining people live in eastern New Britain Island area known as the Gazelle Peninsula, in a mountainous tropical forest.  They are a Melanesian people closely akin to other groups in Papua New Guinea.  They traditionally live in small villages with dispersed political authority.  The Baining use their masks to unify the otherwise dispersed villagers, usually in celebrations of major events such as yam harvest, births, deaths, or adult initiation for both boys and girls.  Some dances are for the day time, mostly those centered around female tasks such as sowing, harvesting, and births.

The masks are mostly made of mulberry or breadfruit tree bark mashed and pounded into a cloth (“tapa cloth”) over bamboo or cane frames. The ragelaque mask is danced in a group to the music drums. This specific mask was danced by its maker, Isaac Dulai Sr., along with his son at the Warwagira Festival in 2025.

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Baining Gumanaga Mask

TITLE: Baining Gumanaga Mask
TYPE: helmet mask
GENERAL REGION: Oceania
COUNTRY: Papua New Guinea
SUBREGION: East New Britain Island
ETHNICITY: Melanesian (Baining)
DESCRIPTION: Gumanaga tapa cloth mask
CATALOG ID: OCPG015
MAKER: Isaace Ligur (Gaulim, 1945- )
CEREMONY: Gumanaga Dance
FUNCTION: Adult Initiation; Agriculture; Celebration; Funeral; Spirit Invocation
AGE: 2025
MAIN MATERIAL: tapa cloth
OTHER MATERIALS: cane; wood stick; charcoal; annatto juice; chicken feathers; dried leaves; rubber band

The Baining people live in eastern New Britain Island area known as the Gazelle Peninsula, in a mountainous tropical forest.  They are a Melanesian people closely akin to other groups in Papua New Guinea.  They traditionally live in small villages with dispersed political authority.  The Baining use their masks to unify the otherwise dispersed villagers, usually in celebrations of major events such as yam harvest, births, deaths, or adult initiation for both boys and girls.  Some dances are for the day time, mostly those centered around female tasks such as sowing, harvesting, and births.

The masks are mostly made of mulberry or breadfruit tree bark mashed and pounded into a cloth (“tapa cloth”) over bamboo or cane frames.  This mask, the gumanaga, is used in day dances and was danced in 2025 at the Warwagira Festival by Martin Mesulam (Gaulim, 2007- ).

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Tigre Crest

TITLE: Tigre Crest
TYPE: crest mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Chiapas
ETHNICITY: Mayan
DESCRIPTION: Tigre (Jaguar / Tiger) Crest Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX191
MAKER: Mariano Venturino Champo José (Suchiapa, 1967- )
CEREMONY: Danza del Calalá
AGE: 1974
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: oil-based paint; painted glass eyes; metal staples

In Suchiapa, Chiapas, the Danza del Calalá (Dance of the “Celestial Deer” in the Chacoan language) is performed on Corpus Christi using wooden or gourd helmet masks with a cloth cowl. The dancer looks through a hole in the cloth and simulates combat with other dancers in a less brutal version of the Batalla de los Tigres in Guerrero. The dance originated before the Spanish conquest and involves several other masked characters , including the calalá (deer), the biblical Goliath, gigantillo (little giant, representing Goliath’s nemesis David), and Quetzalcoatl (feathered serpent god of the Maya). The dance is performed to indigenous music of drums and reed whistles, and it ends when the tigres revolt.


Click above to watch a short documentary film about the Danza del Calalá of the Corpus Christi celebration in Suchiapa, Mexico.

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Moryonan (Moriones) Mask and Breastplate

TITLE: Moryonan (Moriones) Mask and Breastplate
TYPE: helmet mask; costume
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Philippines
SUBREGION: Marinduque
ETHNICITY: Filipino (Tagalog)
DESCRIPTION: Moryonan mask and matching breastplate decorated with tangala
CATALOG ID: ASPH003
MAKER: Mask: Renato Morales Sr. (Mogpog, 1942-2018); Helmet and Breastplate: Jerónimo Nagutom (Mogpog, 1968- )
CEREMONY: Moryonan Festival
AGE: 1987
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: tangala (coconut stems); coconut shell; adhesive; vegetable fiber; cotton cloth; foam rubber; plastic helmet strap

Every year during Holy Week, Catholic inhabitants of the island of Marinduque stage a passion play in which some dress as Roman soldiers and Syrian mercenaries who persecute and ultimately crucify a man playing the role of Jesus to expiate the town’s sins. The soldiers, or Moryonan (usually called Moriones in the media) wear wood and fiber helmet masks in imitation of the Roman legionary’s galea. Some masks and costumes are made with very creative materials, such as consumer product boxes, beer cans, or organic materials. This mask and breastplate are decorated with the dried stems and shells of a coconut fruit and was worn by Abel Livelo (Mogpog, 1967- ) from 1987 until about 2015.

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General Cai Yang Nuo Mask

TITLE: General Cai Yang Nuo Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: China
SUBREGION: Guizhou
ETHNICITY: Hmong (Miao)
DESCRIPTION: Nuo mask of General Cai Yang for the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
CATALOG ID: ASCN015
MAKER: Qin Fazhong (Zongnan, Guizhou, 1972- )
CEREMONY: Nuoxi
FUNCTION: Celebration; Entertainment; Protection/Purification
AGE: 1997
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: human hair; mirror; paint; string; adhesive

The Nuoxi of China may be traced back to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), possibly much earlier (some believe the Shang and Zhou Dynasties) and was popular in large parts of the empire, but especially along the southern borders, where it was a form of entertainment for the imperial troops. It evolved from a sacrificial rite performed by shamans into a more dramatic form, with both Buddhist and Taoist overtones. Nuo opera is based on historical stories and stories based on the Taoist religion and all roles (including female roles) are performed by men. It evolved into a popular form of entertainment and was eventually accompanied by an orchestra of Chinese instruments.  The Nuo opera never quite lost its shamanic connection, however, and also was used to exorcise evil spirits at the home of sick persons. The sacred connection is evident from a religious ceremony that always precedes the opening of a Nuo opera.  In addition, a wooden statue representing the originator of the opera is present at every performance, and nobody except the opera troupe may touch props used in the performance. Although the Chinese Communist Party attempted to suppress Nuo performances and eliminated it from most of the country, the opera continues to be performed in three southern provinces of China today (Guangxi, Guizhou, and Jiangxi).

The Miao people are part of the Hmong ethnic group living in southern China. The hair on Miao nuo masks must be cut from the corpse of a man who had several children and who lived an exemplary life, neither feuding with neighbors nor hoarding wealth. This character, General Cai Yang, is used in a dance-drama from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms. It is supposed to recount the story of a general serving under Cao Cao who harbors a grudge against General Guan Yu, who was defeated by Cao Cao and serves under him. Guan Yu receives what Cai Yang views as special treatment, and when he learns that Guan Yu is secretly loyal to General Liu Bei and has left the region without Cao Cao’s permission, the latter gives Cai Yang permission to pursue Guan Yu. However, Guan Yu kills Cai Yang in battle.

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General Qinhuai Yu Nuo Mask

TITLE: General Xinhuai Yu Nuo Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: China
SUBREGION: Guizhou
ETHNICITY: Hmong (Miao)
DESCRIPTION: Nuo mask of General Qinhuai Yu
CATALOG ID: ASCN017
MAKER: Zhou [first name unknown] (Cha Tou Pu Village, Pingba City, Anshun, 1934-2012)
CEREMONY: Nuoxi
FUNCTION: Celebration; Entertainment; Protection/Purification
AGE: 1984
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; string; mirror; human hair; adhesive; rubber bands; decorations of dyed cotton; bamboo; artificial pheasant feathers

The Nuoxi of China may be traced back to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), possibly much earlier (some believe the Shang and Zhou Dynasties) and was popular in large parts of the empire, but especially along the southern borders, where it was a form of entertainment for the imperial troops. It evolved from a sacrificial rite performed by shamans into a more dramatic form, with both Buddhist and Taoist overtones. Nuo opera is based on historical stories and stories based on the Taoist religion and all roles (including female roles) are performed by men. It evolved into a popular form of entertainment and was eventually accompanied by an orchestra of Chinese instruments.  The Nuo opera never quite lost its shamanic connection, however, and also was used to exorcise evil spirits at the home of sick persons. The sacred connection is evident from a religious ceremony that always precedes the opening of a Nuo opera.  In addition, a wooden statue representing the originator of the opera is present at every performance, and nobody except the opera troupe may touch props used in the performance. Although the Chinese Communist Party attempted to suppress Nuo performances and eliminated it from most of the country, the opera continues to be performed in three southern provinces of China today (Guangxi, Guizhou, and Jiangxi).

The Miao people are part of the Hmong ethnic group living in southern China. The hair on Miao nuo masks must be cut from the corpse of a man who had several children and who lived an exemplary life, neither feuding with neighbors nor hoarding wealth. This character, General Qinhuai Yu, appears in a dance-drama recounting a story from the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE). Qinhuai Yu is hte son of Qin Qiong (also known as Qin Shubao), a prominent door god who frequently appearas next to Yuchi Gong. The two door gods were originally generals of the Tang Dynasty responsible for protecting Emperor Tang Taizong from nightly hauntings by demons. In the drama, Qinhuai Yu is the second in command to the General Xue Dinghan in a campaign to subdue minority tribes to the west of the then-capital of China, Changan.

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Little Boy Nuo Mask

TITLE: Xiaotong Nuo Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: China
SUBREGION: Guizhou
ETHNICITY: Han
DESCRIPTION: Nuo mask of Xiaotong/Xiaojun/Xiaobing (Little Boy/Little Soldier)
CATALOG ID: ASCN014
MAKER: Qin Fazhong (Zhongnan, 1972- )
CEREMONY: Nuoxi
FUNCTION: Celebration; Entertainment; Protection/Purification
AGE: 2022
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: acrylic paint; string

The Nuoxi of China may be traced back to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), possibly much earlier (some believe the Shang and Zhou Dynasties) and was popular in large parts of the empire, but especially along the southern borders, where it was a form of entertainment for the imperial troops. It evolved from a sacrificial rite performed by shamans into a more dramatic form, with both Buddhist and Taoist overtones. Nuo opera is based on historical stories and stories based on the Taoist religion and all roles (including female roles) are performed by men. It evolved into a popular form of entertainment and was eventually accompanied by an orchestra of Chinese instruments.  The Nuo opera never quite lost its shamanic connection, however, and also was used to exorcise evil spirits at the home of sick persons. The sacred connection is evident from a religious ceremony that always precedes the opening of a Nuo opera.  In addition, a wooden statue representing the originator of the opera is present at every performance, and nobody except the opera troupe may touch props used in the performance. Although the Chinese Communist Party attempted to suppress Nuo performances and eliminated it from most of the country, the opera continues to be performed in three southern provinces of China today (Guangxi, Guizhou, and Jiangxi).

The Han people make up the largest ethnic group in China. This character, variously called Xiaotong (萧统) (little boy), or Xiaojun or Xiaobing (both meaning little soldier), is used in the nuo “ground opera.” It is a stock character that can be used in any play to represent a boy or a young and inexperienced soldier.

This mask was danced from 2022 to 2024.

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Gongsun Zan Nuo Mask

TITLE: Gongsun Zan Nuo Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: China
SUBREGION: Guizhou
ETHNICITY: Hmong (Miao)
DESCRIPTION: Nuo mask of Gongsun Zan for the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
CATALOG ID: ASCN016
MAKER: Zhou [first name unknown] (Cha Tou Pu Village, Pingba City, Anshun, 1934-2012)
CEREMONY: Nuoxi
FUNCTION: Celebration; Entertainment; Protection/Purification
AGE: 1980
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; string; human hair; mirror; adhesive; rubber bands; decorations of dyed cotton; bamboo; artificial pheasant feathers

The Nuoxi of China may be traced back to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), possibly much earlier (some believe the Shang and Zhou Dynasties) and was popular in large parts of the empire, but especially along the southern borders, where it was a form of entertainment for the imperial troops. It evolved from a sacrificial rite performed by shamans into a more dramatic form, with both Buddhist and Taoist overtones. Nuo opera is based on historical stories and stories based on the Taoist religion and all roles (including female roles) are performed by men. It evolved into a popular form of entertainment and was eventually accompanied by an orchestra of Chinese instruments.  The Nuo opera never quite lost its shamanic connection, however, and also was used to exorcise evil spirits at the home of sick persons. The sacred connection is evident from a religious ceremony that always precedes the opening of a Nuo opera.  In addition, a wooden statue representing the originator of the opera is present at every performance, and nobody except the opera troupe may touch props used in the performance. Although the Chinese Communist Party attempted to suppress Nuo performances and eliminated it from most of the country, the opera continues to be performed in three southern provinces of China today (Guangxi, Guizhou, and Jiangxi).

The Miao people are part of the Hmong ethnic group living in southern China. The hair on Miao nuo masks must be cut from the corpse of a man who had several children and who lived an exemplary life, neither feuding with neighbors nor hoarding wealth. This character, Gongsun Zan, was a real Chinese general and warlord who lived during the period of Han Emperor Xian (181-234 CE). The character mask is used in a dance-drama from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a 14th-century novel of historical fiction. In the Romance, Gongsun Zan leads a cavalry unit of white horses that defends the northern and eastern frontiers of the Chinese Empire from non-Han invaders. When another warlord (Dong Zhuo) seizes Emperor Xian and holds him hostage, Gongsun Zan joins a coalition to free the emperor. Later, he battles with a third warlord, Yuan Shao, over the territories of northern China, but is defeated and killed at the Battle of Yijing.

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