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Soul Mask

TITLE: Soul Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Michoacán
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Calavera (Skull) Mask Representing an Espíritu (Soul)
CATALOG ID: LAMX064
MAKER: Manuel Horta Ramos (Tocuaro)
CEREMONY: Día de los Muertos
FUNCTION: celebration; spirit invocation
AGE: 2015
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: plaster; maque

Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) is an important Mexican celebration of pre-Christian origin. In its modern incarnation, Day of the Dead (actually, two days in most places, November 1st for children and 2nd for adults) celebrates deceased family members with ofrendas (offerings) to the spirits who return to visit and night-long vigils at the graves of the departed. The graves are frequently decorated with flowers, candles, and sweets for children and alcohol for adults.

In parts of Mexico, Day of the Dead is also celebrated with desfiles (parades) or comparsas (appearances or performances) by masqueraders. Because Day of the Dead celebrates the departed, the calaca, or skull, remains an extremely popular image. The skull and skeleton are important symbols in pre-Christian Mexican culture and are found extensively in Aztec, Mixtec, Mayan, and other indigenous art.  This mask represents a soul (espíritu) being carried to its destination (Heaven or Hell) by a bat.

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Tigre Mask

TITLE: Tigre Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Guerrero
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Tigre (Jaguar) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX021
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Batalla de los Tigres (Tecuanis)
AGE: ca. 2010
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: boar hair; paint

In Guerrero, Mexico, the Batalla de los Tigres (Tiger Battles) are today part of the Catholic feast day of the Holy Cross, but its origins probably reach back into the pre-conquest era worship of a jaguar god (notwithstanding the name and appearance of the mask, there are no tigers in any part of the Americas). Indeed, in many parts of Guerrero, the dancers are referred to as tecuani, the Nahuatl word for jaguar (literally, “man-eater”).  The modern dance is used to summon rain for the spring planting season.  The jaguars engage in a fierce battle, striking each other with knotted ropes.

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Huehueskistli Mask

TITLE: Huehueskistli Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Guerrero
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Huehueskistli (Old Man) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX020
MAKER: Unknown maker in Acatlán
CEREMONY: Carnival; Fiesta Patronal (Patron Saint Holiday)
AGE: ca. 1970s
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; nails; dyed ixtle fiber headdress

The Huehueskistli (Old Man) is a kind of clown that appears in Carnival and patron saint holidays in parts of Guerrero, mostly Acatlán and Zitlala.  He wears a long sleeve white shirt, black vest and pants, and colorful sarape and bag, with a wig of dyed ixtle fiber on his head. During these celebrations, the Huehueskitli appear and dance in pairs to the music of drums and trumpets, waving large handkerchiefs, acting like drunkards, teasing women, yelling in a high-pitched voice, and making the crowd laugh by jumping on each others’ backs and goofing around generally. The tigres (jaguars) also appear during between the Huehueskistli dances.  The significance of the lizards on the face is unknown.

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Hormega Mask

TITLE: Hormega Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Puebla
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Hormega Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX093
MAKER: Silverio Ochoa Martínez (San Juan Xiutetelco, 1944- )
CEREMONY: Danza de los Santiagueros
AGE: 1982
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint

The Danza de los Santiagueros (Dance of the Saint James’s) is based on a mythical story of St. James the Apostle (Santiago el Apostól) exacting revenge on the enemies of Jesus, especially Pontius Pilate (Pilato, sometimes called Rey Pilato).  St. James may or may not wear a mask, but Pilato usually does.  Accompanying each side are their allies, santiagueros (not to be confused with St. James himself, who appears on pseudo-horseback, represented by a wooden horse figure tied around his waist) and pilatos (little Pontius Pilates) respectively.

The santiagueros wear red masks, and in some towns they have long noses and are called hormegas, a term with no known definition and whose origin is obscure.

For more on masks from Puebla, see Bryan J. Stevens, Mexican Masks and Puppets: Master Carvers of the Sierra de Puebla (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Pub’g, 2012).

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Moor Mask

TITLE: Moor Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Puebla
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: “Cardface” Moor mask with white, grey, black, red design)
CATALOG ID: LAMX166
MAKER: Unknown maker from Tuzamapán de Galeana
CEREMONY: Danza de los Moros y Cristianos
AGE: ca. 1970s
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: oil-based paint; glue; glitter; string

The Danza de los Moros y Cristianos (Dance of the Moors and Christians) reenacts the reconquest of Spain by the Christians from the Muslim Saracens.  The story was taught by missionaries as part of an effort to instill respect for and fear of the Spaniards in the indigenous peoples, and to convince them that the victory of Christianity over other faiths—by violence whenever necessary—was inevitable.

The dance is still performed widely in Mexico, including in Mexico State, Michoacán, Puebla, and Veracruz. Important characters include Spaniards, Moors, saints, angels, and devils. This Moro takes a form typical only in the village of Tuzamapan and is commonly known as an “enamorado” (lover) or “card face” Moor, because the makers there often include symbols from playing cards (hearts, spades, diamonds and clubs). More recently, designs like this one have been inspired by the masks used in the popular lucha libre (wrestling).

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Payaso Mask

TITLE: Payaso Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Puebla
ETHNICITY: Nahua & Mixtec
DESCRIPTION: Payaso (Clown) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX097
MAKER: Francisco de Aquino (Xochitlán, 1928-2003)
CEREMONY: Carnival; Danza de los Huehues
AGE: 1994
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: oil-based paint; cotton string

Payaso (clown) masks are very popular throughout Latin America. They are commonly worn at Carnival and also during important religious holidays. In Puebla, clowns are regular characters in the Danza de los Huehues.

Huehue means village elder.  The Danza de los Huehues predates the Spanish conquest and is believed to have begun around Day of the Dead, when village elders helped the widows to find shelter after their husbands died in battle.  Some believe the dance originated in Tlaxcala or Huasteca and spread to Puebla.  The Devil is a character added by way of Catholic influence; he is charged with harassing the dancers and audience during the performance.  The dance is typically held in late June, in honor of a patron saint.

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Viejo Mask

TITLE: Viejo Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Nicaragua
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Viejo (old man) mask
CATALOG ID: LANI002
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Danza del Viejo y la Vieja
AGE: 1970s
MAIN MATERIAL: paper maché
OTHER MATERIALS: plaster; paint; string; wire mesh

One of the lesser known cultural traditions of Nicaragua is the Danza del Viejo y la Vieja (Dance of the Old Man and Woman), a two-person masked dance accompanied by a whistle, marimba, and drum. The dance is a parody of infidelity and hypocrisy.  As the pair dances, the cane-wielding viejo flirts with the girls in the audience, and the vieja (usually played by a man) flirts with the boys. When each eventually realizes what the other is up to, they start arguing and beating each other.

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Tastoan

TITLE: Tastoan Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Jalisco
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Tastoan mask with ceramic motif and Nahuál and Nahuala on nose
CATALOG ID: LAMX042
MAKER: Ubaldo Macías Bernabe (Tonalá, 1972- )
CEREMONY: Fiesta de Santiago el Apostól
AGE: 2015
MAIN MATERIAL: leather
OTHER MATERIALS: cow teeth; animal bone; acrylic paint; lacquer; glue paste; wire; thread; elastic bands

In parts of Jalisco and Zacatecas, the holiday in honor of Santiago el Apostól (St. James the Apostle) is held every 25th of July. Celebrants carry spears and dress in long pants, leather chaps, and boots, with demonic masks made of wood (Zacatecas) or molded leather (Jalisco) covered with a montera (headdress) of hair or plant fiber. The festival commemorates a battle between the indigenous warriors of the area and conquistadors. The appearance of the tastoanes, who represent indigenous warriors, conveys their ferocity through sharp teeth, large noses, and snakes, lizards, scorpions and spiders for decorations. This mask has images of the mythical creatures nahual and nahuala, half jaguar and half human, who symbolize the ferocity of the Tonaltecs. In some cases, the masks are dotted to convey the transmission of diseases such as smallpox and syphilis from the Spaniards to the indigenous peoples.

During the celebration, tastoanes and either three kings wearing ceramic masks or three Aztec priestesses (one representing the Tonaltec queen Tzapotzintli, also known as Tzuapili oor Cihualpilli) carry an image of St. James along a parade route and dance to music carrying swords or whips, after which they make defiant speeches and engage in a mock battle (jugada) with a participant carrying a whip who represents St. James.  At the end of the battle, all the tastoanes die and St. James is victorious. In the past, all tastoanes were male, but recently women have begun to participate as well.  In some towns, an organization such as a Cofradía de Santo Santiago (Fraternity of St. James) organizes the event.

This specific mask was made by the award-winning craftsman Ubaldo Macías of Tonalá and was danced in the 2016 Fiesta de Santo Santiago in Tonalá.

Click above to watch a short documentary about the tastoanes of Tonalá, Mexico.

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Turkish Soldier Mask

TITLE: Turkish Soldier Mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Puebla
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Turkish soldier (Turco) mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX103
MAKER: Unknown maker in Huejotzingo
CEREMONY: Carnival (Battle of Puebla)
AGE: ca. 1920s
MAIN MATERIAL: leather
OTHER MATERIALS: wire; human hair; paint

The Carnival in Huejotzingo, Puebla is both impressive and unique. In its modern incarnation, it has continued a tradition of mock battles since 1869 or earlier. The Carnival begins with a parade, dancing, music, and fireworks and continues with reenactments of putative historical events. The first is the kidnapping of the daughter of Huejotzingo’s corregidor (mayor) by the bandit Augustín Lorenzo, followed by their wedding. The second is a reenactment of the first marriage of Nahuas by Catholic rituals.

The third and most elaborate reenacts the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862 between French and Mexican armed forces. Participants of the four principal neighborhoods of the city are divided into five battalions, each headed by a general.  Over four days, these battalions participate in mock battles, firing wooden muskets with real gunpowder at each other, and visit the cemeteries to pay homage to former members. Some participants are women dressed and masked as men. The five battalions represent various factions in both sides of the conflict.

The Zapadores represent the Mexican nobility who are the imperial guard of Maximilian I or Agustín de Iturbide. They wear clothes mixing Mexican and European elements, with a tall cylindrical hat (penacho) and a large, wide beard. On their side are the Zacapoaxtlas and Indios Serranos. The Zacapoaxtlas represent Mexican cowboys (charros) who fought with General Zaragoza. Their masks have two blond beards, a Mariachi sombrero, and an elaborate costume with a black cape and tones of the Mexican flag (red, white and green). The Indios Serranos represent the indigenous warriors and wear a mask with a long, light-colored beard and a wide palm-leaf hat with a Virgin Mary and elaborate decorations. Their costume includes a water gourd, a leather satchel, and a plant fiber backpack that holds their food (mostly chile peppers).

The Franceses (sometimes called Zuoavos, from the French word Zouaves) wear a blue, fez-like cap (gorro) and a mask with two blond beards like the Zacapoaxtla, with the small difference that the Frances mask is painted slightly lighter in color. They wear a blue cape with both the French and Mexican flags on it and sometimes carry a baguette. Their allies, the Turcos (Turks) represent mercenaries (probably in reality Egyptian) whom the Pueblans associated with Islam and, therefore, hostility to Catholic Mexico. The Turcos wear a turban and a mask with a black, pointed beard.  Their costume includes silk clothes, peacock feathers, and scimitars. All participants on both sides carry mock muskets.

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Manueles Mask

TITLE: Manueles Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Guerrero
ETHNICITY: Nahua
DESCRIPTION: Novio (boyfriend) mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX018
MAKER: Nalberto Abrahán (Tixtla)
CEREMONY: Danza de los Manueles
AGE: 1950s
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: blanco de españa; paint

Several versions of the Danza de los Manueles are performed in Guerrero. In some towns, such as Chilpancingo and Zoquiapan, the Manueles dance reenacts the drama of a village girl who is betrothed to a novio (boyfriend) and jilted for another girl (novia). The story ends after much squabbling among the parents and grandparents. This mask represents the novio.

In other towns, such as Tixtla, the dance has a completely different meaning and characters. According to historical accounts, a despotic and greedy Spaniard named Manuel governed Tixtla in the eighteenth century. To protest his maladministration, the indigenous Nahuas adopted a dance ridiculing his elegant dress and habit of jingling his silver coins. Instead of becoming outraged, Mayor Manuel promoted the dance as an annual event (possibly viewing the cathartic symbolic protest as preferable to a more material reaction). The mask’s appearance was frequently rendered as distorted and ugly.  The dance is performed to drums and violins and the costume loosely resembles an eighteenth century European suit with short breeches and a top hat, carrying a crooked cane like a snake and a teapot used as a rattle. An old woman supposedly resembling the mayor’s wife, dances as well, also carrying a cane and wearing a thick suit to make her appear obese. Other dancers represent the Spaniards under the mayor’s authority and wear highly decorated hats and costumes.

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